Drift Current: It is flow of current through the material or device under the influence of voltage or electric field intensity. But above the room temperature their conductivity decreases. Fermi Dirac Fermi Dirac Function: Function: ItIt gives gives the the probability probability that that an available energy state E will be occupied be occupied by by anan electron electron at at absolute absolute temperature temperature T.
The current in both the primary and secondary of the transformer flows for entire cycle. No center tapping is required in the transformer secondary. Hence it is a cheap device. The current in the secondary winding of transformer is in opposite direction in two half cycles. Hence net DC current flow is zero. As two diode currents are in series, in each of the cycle inverse voltage appear across diode gets shared. Hence the circuit can be used for high voltage application.
BASIC 1. ItIt is is mirror mirror image image of of signal. Steps: 1. First First rotate rotate the the signal signal w. Compress 2. Compress the the signal signal by by 55 times.
Shift 3. Shift the the signal signal by by unit unit towards towards right right side. Non-causal: Output depends on future. Causal or non causal system is different to causal or non causal signals. Linear and non-linear systems A system is said to be linear if it satisfies the principal of superposition.
Principal of superposition consists of two properties: i Additive property ii Homogeneity property Otherwise system is non-linear. NOISE ………………………………………………………………. RADAR …………………………………………………………….. Need for Modulation: 1. Size of antenna required for receiving the wave is reduced if signal is transmitted at high frequency. Many number of signals can be transmitted simultaneously by selecting the carriers of different frequencies.
The interference of noise and other signals can be reduced by changing the frequency of transmission. Integration of different communication system is possible. Amplitude Modulation Amplitude Modulated Signal: AM may be defined as a system in which the maximum amplitude of the carrier wave is made proportional to the instantaneous value amplitude of the modulating or base band signal.
Only side- bands are transmitted in modulated wave. Product Modulator B. Square Law Modulator C. Synchronous or coherent detection B. For this reason, conventional AM systems are used for broad casting purpose. This means that louder the sound, greater the frequency deviation and vice — versa. Relationship between phase modulation and frequency modulation: In PM, the phase angle varies linearly with base band signal m t whereas in FM, the phase angle varies with the integral of base band signal m t.
It has two bands similar to AM wave and both have same bandwidth requirements. It can be detected using Envelop Detector. Ideally the Bandwidth requirement of Fm signal is infinite because it has infinite number of side bands. Due to this, there is less adjacent channel interference in FM. A and result is scalar quantity. It is the divergence of gradient of V.
The result is a scalar quantity. It depends only on initial and final paths. It can be improved by recalibration. Precision: It is a measure of the degree to which successive measurement differ from one another. High precision does not mean high accuracy. A highly precise instrument may be inaccurate. Ex: If reading are , , , , Most precise value is Resolution: The smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will respond.
It is improved by re-calibrating the instrument. Sensitivity: It is ratio of change in output per unit change in input quantity of the instrument.
It is design time characteristic. Drift: It means deviation in output of the instrument from a derived value for a particular input. Reproducibility: It is degree of closeness with which a given value may be measured repeatedly for a given period of time.
Repeatability: It is degree of closeness with which a given input is repeatably indicated for a given set of recordings. Errors: 1. Its emf is 1. Standard of Time and Frequency: Atomic clock is used as primary standard of time and frequency. Quartz, Rubidium crystal is used as secondary standard of time and frequency. Example: Cesium , hydrogen maser etc. Secondary Instrument: It gives the value of parameter for directly under measurement.
Note: Absolute instruments are highly accurate than secondary instrument as they contain less number of moving mechanical parts resulting in a lower operational of power consumption. Classification of analog instruments 1. Indicating type: Voltmeter, Ammeter, Wattmeter. Recording type: Recorders. Integrating type: Energy meter.
Comparison type: Potentiometer and bridges or null deflection. Deflecting type: PMMC Note: Null deflecting instruments are highly accurate as compression to deflecting instrument as their operational power consumption at zero deflection is zero. Principle of Operation of Analog Instruments: Magnetic effect: Moving Iron, PMMC, Dynamometer Induction effect: Energy meter Heating effect: Thermocouple and Hotwire type, Bolometer Electro static effect: Electro static type voltmeter Hall Effect: Poynting vector type voltmeter, Flux-meter Damping system used in indicating instruments: It is provided in the instrument which helps the moving system of the instrument to reach to final position at earliest.
It is denoted by P. These materials have permanent dipole moment in absence of external field and exhibits both electronic and ionic polarization. Piezoelectric Materials: If mechanical stress is applied to a dielectric material, material gets polarized because of applied stress and vice versa. These types of materials are called piezoelectric materials.
Applications: Gramophone, Accelerometer. Then this property is Electrostriction. The program first must need to be translated to machine language machine language program is nothing more than sequence of 0s and 1s which the computer can understand.
Compiler: Compiler is a translator, which converts high level language program into assembly language program.
Assembler: Assembler is a program that translates assembly language program into machine language sequence of 0s and 1s program. Linker: Linker is a computer program that takes one or more object files generated by a compiler and combine them into a single executable program. Loader: Loader is the part of an operating system that is responsible for loading programs. It places programs into memory and prepares them for execution. Pointer: Pointers are variables which holds the address of another variable.
Call by value 2. Call by reference Call by value: Actual values of the parameter are passed to the called function. Example: What is the output of the following program using Call by value as parameter passing technique? Call by reference: In Call by reference, addresses of variables are passed as parameter to the called function. Example: What is the output of above program, if compiler uses call by reference as parameter passing technique?
Solution: If compiler uses call by reference parameter passing technique, following changes are made to the program by the compiler. Advantages of Microwaves: 1. Increased bandwidth availability 2. Improved directive properties 3. Sky wave in point communication, the night extends Sonar navigation. Low attenuation during day and night. LF 30 — kHz 10 — 1 km Surface wave and sky Point-to-point marine wave at night.
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